Monday 30 September 2013

Pencil Sketches Of Faces Of Nature Of Sceneries Landscapes Of Flowers Of Girls Of People Tumblr Of Roses Of Eyes Of Love

Pencil Sketches Of Faces Biography

source(google.com.pk)
A pencil is a hexagonal prism or cylinder-shaped tool used to write and draw, usually on paper.
Contents  [hide]
1 Structure
2 Pens and Pencils
3 History
3.1 Discovery of graphite deposit
3.2 No. 2 Pencils
3.3 Wood holders added
3.4 Eraser attached
4 Other attempts
5 Modern day pencils
6 References
Structure[change]

A pencil is usually made with a piece of carbon mixed with clay that has a wood case around it. Coloured pencils are a type of pencil that instead of greyish silver, the tip is different colors. Coloured pencils or crayons are usually meant for drawing rather than writing.
Pens and Pencils[change]

An important difference between pens and pencils is that the tip of a pencil is made of graphite (or lead) and pens have tips made of metal with ink coming out of the bottom. Pencil writings do not smudge or wash away if the paper gets wet, unlike pens which have ink. Writing with a pen will usually smudge. Writing from a pencil can be erased, but writing from a pen usually cannot. Finally, while pencils have been around for thousands of years, pens have only been around for about three hundred.
History[change]



Old Soviet colour pencils with box (circa 1959)
The archetypal pencil may have been the stylus, which was a thin metal stick, often made from lead and used for scratching in papyrus, a form of early paper. They were used extensively by the ancient Egyptians and Romans. The word pencil comes from the Latin word pencillus which means "little tail".
Discovery of graphite deposit[change]
Some time before 1565 (it may have been as early as 1500), an enormous deposit of graphite was discovered on the approach to Grey Knotts from the hamlet of Seathwaite in Borrowdale parish, Cumbria, England.[1][2][3] The locals found that it was very useful for marking sheep. This particular deposit of graphite was extremely pure and solid, and it could easily be sawn into sticks. This remains the only large scale deposit of graphite ever found in this solid form.[4] Chemistry was in its infancy and the substance was thought to be a form of lead. Consequently, it was called plumbago (Latin for "lead ore").[5][6] The black core of pencils is still referred to as lead, even though it never contained the element lead. In German, the word for pencil still is Bleistift, literally lead stick.
The value of graphite was soon realized to be enormous, mainly because it could be used to line the moulds for cannonballs, and the mines were taken over by the Crown and guarded. When sufficient stocks of graphite had been accumulated, the mines were flooded to prevent theft until more was required. Graphite had to be smuggled out for use in pencils. Because graphite is soft, it requires some form of case. Graphite sticks were at first wrapped in string or in sheepskin for stability. The news of the usefulness of these early pencils spread far and wide, attracting the attention of artists all over the known world.
England continued to have a monopoly on the production of pencils until a method of reconstituting the graphite powder was found. The distinctively square English pencils continued to be made with sticks cut from natural graphite into the 1860s. The town of Keswick, near the original findings of block graphite, has a pencil museum.[7]
The first attempt to manufacture graphite sticks from powdered graphite was in Nuremberg, Germany, in 1662. It used a mixture of graphite, sulphur, and antimony.
Residual graphite from a pencil stick is not poisonous, and graphite is harmless if consumed.[8]
No. 2 Pencils[change]
The number 2 pencil got its title from the shade of darkness it has (second most dark) from pencil #1-5. This pencil's shape is typically hexagonal and is frequently wood cased. They can write under water, upside down and in space. They can also write up to 45000 words[source?].
Wood holders added[change]
The Italians first thought of wooden holders. In 1560, an Italian couple named Simonio and Lyndiana Bernacotti created the first blueprints for the modern carpentry pencil to mark their carpentry pieces.[9] Their version was instead a flat, oval, more compact type of pencil. They did this at first by hollowing out a stick of juniper wood. Shortly thereafter, a superior technique was discovered: two wooden halves were carved, a graphite stick inserted, and the two halves then glued together–essentially the same method in use to this day.[10]
English and German pencils were not available to the French during the Napoleonic Wars. France was under naval blockade imposed by Great Britain and could not import the pure graphite sticks from the British Grey Knotts mines – the only known source in the world for solid graphite. France was also unable to import the inferior German graphite pencil substitute. It took the efforts of an officer in Napoleon's army to change this. In 1795, Nicholas Jacques Conté discovered a method of mixing powdered graphite with clay and forming the mixture into rods that were then fired in a kiln. By varying the ratio of graphite to clay, the hardness of the graphite rod could also be varied. This method of manufacture, which had been earlier discovered by the Austrian Joseph Hardtmuth of Koh-I-Noor in 1790, remains in use.[11]
In England, pencils continued to be made from whole sawn graphite. Henry Bessemer's first successful invention (1838) was a method of compressing graphite powder into solid graphite thus allowing the waste from sawing to be reused.[12]


Pencil manufacturing. The top sequence shows the old method that required pieces of graphite to be cut to size; the lower sequence is the new, current method using rods of graphite and clay
American colonists imported pencils from Europe until after the American Revolution. Benjamin Franklin advertised pencils for sale in his Pennsylvania Gazette in 1729, and George Washington used a three-inch pencil when he surveyed the Ohio Territory in 1762.[source?] It is said that William Munroe, a cabinetmaker in Concord, Massachusetts, made the first American wood pencils in 1812. This was not the only pencil-making occurring in Concord. According to Henry Petroski, transcendentalist philosopher Henry David Thoreau discovered how to make a good pencil out of inferior graphite using clay as the binder; this invention was prompted by his father's pencil factory in Concord, which employed graphite found in New Hampshire in 1821 by Charles Dunbar.
Munroe's method of making pencils was painstakingly slow, and in the neighbouring town of Acton, a pencil mill owner named Ebenezer Wood set out to automate the process at his own pencil mill located at Nashoba Brook along the old Davis Road. He used the first circular saw in pencil production. He constructed the first of the hexagon- and octagon-shaped wooden casings that we have today. Ebenezer did not patent his invention and shared his techniques with whomever asked. One of those was Eberhard Faber of New York, who became the leader in pencil production.[13]
Joseph Dixon, an inventor and entrepreneur involved with the Tantiusques granite mine in Sturbridge, Massachusetts, developed a means to mass produce pencils. By 1870, The Joseph Dixon Crucible Company was the world’s largest dealer and consumer of graphite and later became the contemporary Dixon Ticonderoga pencil and art supplies company.[14][15]
By the end of the 19th century over 240,000 pencils were used each day in the United States alone. The favoured timber for pencils was Red Cedar as it was aromatic and did not splinter when sharpened. In the early 1900s supplies of Red Cedar were dwindling so that pencil manufacturers were forced to recycle the wood from cedar fences and barns to maintain supply. It was soon discovered that Incense cedar, when dyed and perfumed to resemble Red Cedar, was a suitable alternative and most pencils today are made from this timber which is grown in managed forests. Over 14 billion pencils are manufactured worldwide annually.[16]
Eraser attached[change]


Drawing of pencil with an attached eraser from its patent application
On 30 March 1858, Hymen Lipman received the first patent for attaching an eraser to the end of a pencil.[17] In 1862 Lipman sold his patent to Joseph Reckendorfer for $100,000, who went to sue the pencil manufacturer Faber-Castell for infringement.[18] In 1875, the Supreme Court of the United States ruled against Reckendorfer declaring the patent invalid.[19]
The metal band used to mate the eraser with pencil is called a ferrule.
Other attempts[change]

The first attempt to manufacture graphite sticks from powdered graphite was in Nuremberg, Germany in 1662. They used a mixture of graphite, sulfur and antimony. Though usable, they were not as good as the English pencils.
English and German pencils were not available to the French during the Napoleonic wars. It took the efforts of an officer in Napoleon's army to change this. In 1795 Nicholas Jacques Conté discovered a method of mixing powdered graphite with clay and forming the mixture into rods which were then fired in a kiln. By varying the ratio of graphite to clay, the hardness of the graphite rod could also be varied (the more clay, the harder the pencil, and the lighter the color of the mark). This method of making pencils is still used today.
Modern day pencils[change]

Today, pencils are made industrially by mixing finely ground graphite and clay powders, adding water, forming long spaghetti-like strings, and firing them in a kiln. The resulting strings are dipped in oil or molten wax which seeps into the tiny holes of the material, resulting in smoother writing. A juniper or incense-cedar plank with several long parallel grooves is cut to make something called a slate, and the graphite/clay strings are inserted into the grooves. Another grooved plank is glued on top, and the whole thing is then cut into individual pencils, which are then varnished or painted.
References[change]

Jump up ↑ Martin and Jean Norgate, Geography Department, Portsmouth University (2008). "Old Cumbria Gazetteer, black lead mine, Seathwaite". Retrieved 2008-05-19.
Jump up ↑ Alfred Wainwright (2005). A Pictorial Guide to the Lakeland Fells, Western Fells. ISBN 0-7112-2460-9.
Jump up ↑ "Graphite from the Plumbago Mine, Borrowdale, England". Department of Physics at Michigan Technological University. Retrieved 2008-03-27.
Jump up ↑ "Lakeland's Mining Heritage". www.cumbria-industries.org.uk. Retrieved 2008-03-27.
Jump up ↑ "Definition of Plumbago". Answers.com. Retrieved 2007-04-21.
Jump up ↑ "Definition of Plumbago". Thefreedictionary.com. Retrieved 2007-04-21.
Jump up ↑ "Keswick Pencil Museum". Pencilmuseum.co.uk. Retrieved 2009-07-23.
Jump up ↑ "Graphite - Identification, toxicity, use, water pollution potential, ecological toxicity, and regulatory information". Pesticideinfo.org. Retrieved 2009-07-23.
Jump up ↑ "Who invented the pencil?". Retrieved 9 May 2013.
Jump up ↑ "Origin of the pencil". Retrieved 9 May 2013.
Jump up ↑ "Invention of Modern Pencil Lead". Retrieved 9 May 2013.
Jump up ↑ Bessemer, Henry. "Sir Henry Bessemer, F.R.S: An Autobiography. Chapter 3."
Jump up ↑ "Acton Conservation Lands, Early American Pencils". Actontrails.org. Retrieved 2009-07-23.
Jump up ↑ "Dixon Ticonderoga Company". Dixonusa.com. Retrieved 2009-07-23.
Jump up ↑ "Tantiusques Graphite Mine". Thetrustees.org. Retrieved 2009-07-23.
Jump up ↑ "The Point Of It All". Discovery Channel Magazine. Volume 1, Issue 5, 2008
Jump up ↑ "US Patent 19783 Combination of Lead-Pencil and Eraser by L. Lipman". Patft.uspto.gov. Retrieved 2009-07-23.
Jump up ↑ Petroski, Henry (1990). The Pencil: A History of Design and Circumstance. New York: Alfred A. Knopf. pp. 171. ISBN 0-394-57422-2.
Jump up ↑ "Reckendorfer v. Faber 92 U.S. 347 (1875)". Supreme.justia.com. Retrieved 2009-07-23.


  Pencil Sketches Of Faces Of  Nature Of  Sceneries Landscapes Of  Flowers Of  Girls Of  People Tumblr Of Roses Of  Eyes Of  Love 
 Pencil Sketches Of Faces Of  Nature Of  Sceneries Landscapes Of  Flowers Of  Girls Of  People Tumblr Of Roses Of  Eyes Of  Love  
 Pencil Sketches Of Faces Of  Nature Of  Sceneries Landscapes Of  Flowers Of  Girls Of  People Tumblr Of Roses Of  Eyes Of  Love  
 Pencil Sketches Of Faces Of  Nature Of  Sceneries Landscapes Of  Flowers Of  Girls Of  People Tumblr Of Roses Of  Eyes Of  Love  
 Pencil Sketches Of Faces Of  Nature Of  Sceneries Landscapes Of  Flowers Of  Girls Of  People Tumblr Of Roses Of  Eyes Of  Love  
 Pencil Sketches Of Faces Of  Nature Of  Sceneries Landscapes Of  Flowers Of  Girls Of  People Tumblr Of Roses Of  Eyes Of  Love  
 Pencil Sketches Of Faces Of  Nature Of  Sceneries Landscapes Of  Flowers Of  Girls Of  People Tumblr Of Roses Of  Eyes Of  Love  
 Pencil Sketches Of Faces Of  Nature Of  Sceneries Landscapes Of  Flowers Of  Girls Of  People Tumblr Of Roses Of  Eyes Of  Love  
 Pencil Sketches Of Faces Of  Nature Of  Sceneries Landscapes Of  Flowers Of  Girls Of  People Tumblr Of Roses Of  Eyes Of  Love  
 Pencil Sketches Of Faces Of  Nature Of  Sceneries Landscapes Of  Flowers Of  Girls Of  People Tumblr Of Roses Of  Eyes Of  Love  
 Pencil Sketches Of Faces Of  Nature Of  Sceneries Landscapes Of  Flowers Of  Girls Of  People Tumblr Of Roses Of  Eyes Of  Love  

 Pencil Sketches Of Faces Of  Nature Of  Sceneries Landscapes Of  Flowers Of  Girls Of  People Tumblr Of Roses Of  Eyes Of  Love  
 Pencil Sketches Of Faces Of  Nature Of  Sceneries Landscapes Of  Flowers Of  Girls Of  People Tumblr Of Roses Of  Eyes Of  Love  
 Pencil Sketches Of Faces Of  Nature Of  Sceneries Landscapes Of  Flowers Of  Girls Of  People Tumblr Of Roses Of  Eyes Of  Love  
 Pencil Sketches Of Faces Of  Nature Of  Sceneries Landscapes Of  Flowers Of  Girls Of  People Tumblr Of Roses Of  Eyes Of  Love  
 Pencil Sketches Of Faces Of  Nature Of  Sceneries Landscapes Of  Flowers Of  Girls Of  People Tumblr Of Roses Of  Eyes Of  Love  
 Pencil Sketches Of Faces Of  Nature Of  Sceneries Landscapes Of  Flowers Of  Girls Of  People Tumblr Of Roses Of  Eyes Of  Love   

Pencil Sketch Pics Of Nature Of Sceneries Landscapes Of Flowers Of Girls Of People Tumblr Of Roses Of Eyes Of Love

Pencil Sketch Pics Biography

source(google.com.pk)
1911 - Born July 9th in the hill town of Kuling , Kiang-Hsi Province, China . The nearby mountain overlooking the plains of Ho was an inspiration for his novels. The younger son of Congregationalist missionary parents, most of his childhood was spent in Tientsin (Tianjin) south east of Peking ( Beijing ).
Read more about Mervyn Peake's in China.
1914 - His first visit to England, where he stayed with relations at Poole, Dorset. During his twelve years in China he attended the Tientsin Grammar School
1923 - Moves back to England and lives at Wallington, in Surrey, where his father sets up a medical practice. Attended the then School for the Sons of Missionaries, now Eltham Collegiate School.
1929 - Left Eltham and briefly went to study at the Croydon School of Art before enrolling at the Royal Academy in December that year.
1931 - Has one of his paintings chosen for the Royal Academy Summer Exhibition.
1932 - Designs costumes used for The Insect Play
1933 Following advice from one of his teachers at Eltham, decides to move to Sark in the Channel Islands where he lives for the next two years.
1935 - Moves back to London having exhibited his work on several occasions with The Sark Group, at galleries in London and in Paris. Begins teaching at the Westminster School of Art.
1936 - Meets Maeve Gilmore on her very first day at the art school.
1937 - Marries at St James’s, Spanish Place Central London, on 1st December
1938 - Has his first one-man show at the Calmann Gallery in London
1939 - His first book Captain Slaughterboard is published by Country Life
1940 - Moves from London to Sussex where School House is rented in the village of Warningcamp , near Arundel, in Sussex . His first child Sebastian is born. Begins writing Titus Groan and joins the Royal Artillery. In December Ride a Cock-Horse and other Nursery Rhymes is published.
1942 - Second son Fabian is born. Receives special dispensation from his commanding officer to continue writing his novel. Given the job of painting For Officers Only on the doors of portable wooden lavatories.
1942 - Leaves the Army
1945 - Visits Germany as war artist, commissioned by The Leader magazine and enters the Bergen-Belsen concentration camp in June. Gathers ideas for a future collection of poems, and produces several drawings of the dying inmates.
1946 - Titus Groan is published by Eyre & Spottiswoode the manuscript having been read by Graham Greene who recommends it to the publisher who reads it over the weekend and immediately decides to publish.
1946 - The Peake family moves to Le Chalet in Sark , renting the large house from a local farmer. The previous occupant had been the commanding officer of the German occupation force.
1949 - Daughter Clare is born at the Le Chalet attended at the birth by Sister Kilfoyle, known to Mervyn as Sister Tinfoil. She, the nurse, is not amused.
1950 - Gormenghast is published to very good reviews.
1951 - Wins the Heinemann Prize for Literature for Gormenghast and The Glassblowers and elected a Fellow of the Royal Society of Literature.
1952 - Moves back to Wallington his childhood home.
1956 - Titus Groan adapted for BBC radio
1957 - The Wit to Woo performed at the Arts Theatre in London
1959 - Titus Alone published
1968 - Dies November 17th at a carehome run by his brother in law, at Burcot, near Oxford . He is buried in the churchyard of the 11th century St Mary the Virgin, at Burpham, near Arundel, together with his wife.  In nearby graves lie his paternal grandparents, and together in another grave, his brother and sister in law
The Peake Family

Maeve Gilmore

1918 – 1983

The youngest of six, Maeve, like Mervyn, had a medical doctor for a father and was brought up at a large house in Acre Lane , Brixton, South London , where her father had his practice. So-called, as at the time all the houses were surrounded by an acre of land, the family later moved across the river to Chelsea Square from where after convent boarding school at St Leonards on Sea, Sussex, she attended a finishing school in Switzerland . Here she learnt to speak fluent German and French and became a good pianist; her favourite music being that of Johann Sebastian Bach whose piano pieces would resound around the many houses she lived in after marrying Mervyn Peake. A fine painter and sculptor in her own right she also wrote several short stories, and had numerous one-woman exhibitions in London before dedicating her life to the well-being and support of her husband, following the onset of his illnesses. She would paint every day in her studio where the cat would sit watching as the canvases developed into works of art which, following her husband’s death in 1968, often emitted a powerful sense of injustice. Her memoir, A World Away, is often cited as one of the most poignant insights into marriage, life, and the joie de vivre of early life with a genius ever written, and remains in print decades after first being published.

Children

Sebastian Peake, born in 1940, has worked in various branches of the wine trade for most of his life, although after leaving school he studied foreign languages for five years while travelling around different European countries. He studied drums for a year in the late 1950s with the then leading modern jazz drummer in the country, and visited the wonderful annual Antibes Jazz Festival in 1963 where, during a break in the performance, he managed to persuade Miles Davis to join him and his Swedish girlfriend in a bottle of Provence rosé. In 1964 he was the drummer in the trio whose pianist came second in the National Young Pianist of the Year competition - the award being presented by Dave Brubeck, who gave a warm, encouraging speech. Jazz remains a lifelong love of his, but a penchant for the great wines of Bordeaux runs neck and neck. The promoting of his father’s work really accelerated after his mother’s death in 1983 when, in the first of what are now regular speaking events, he addressed the English faculty at the University of Krakow. Since then he has been speaking at literary festivals, bookshops, private gatherings, schools and universities both at home and abroad.

Fabian Peake is a painter and poet. He has had several collection of his poems published and held many one-man exhibitions both in Britain and abroad displaying his highly evocative and original painting. He taught at the fine art department of Manchester Metropolitan University for over thirty years where he was a popular and admired senior lecturer.

Clare Penate, Mervyn and Maeve’s daughter can technically call herself Sarkese having been born on the island and is one of a very small number of people who
could actually purchase property on the island. She has recently completed a work on her parents life together as seen from her perspective given that she is much younger than her brothers. Mother of the singing star Jack Penate, she plays an active part in the promotion of her father’s work.
1947 Born Derby, England.
1964-1966 Derby Art College.
1966-1969 Chelsea School of Art, London. Graphic Design Degree (BA hons) in printmaking, illustration and typography.
1969-1971 Leverhulm Travel Scholarship to USA (6 months) Musician/recording artist working with Kevin Coyne and band 'Siren' recording on John Peel's 'Dandelion Records' label producing singles and three albums.
1972-1978 Living in Gloucestershire. Exhibiting pencil drawings in London at Treadwell Gallery, Thumb Gallery and Fischer Fine Art. 'THE CEPHALOPHONES' - A series of pencil drawings exhibited internationally with works by Picasso, Magritte, Brancusi and Duchamp.
1979-1983 Colour drawings exhibited in London and New York by Treadwell Gallery. Also international art shows and fairs in Europe. One man show at Del Naviglio Gallery, Milan. National touring show of 'THE ANATOMICAL DRAWINGS' in 1980-81 followed by lecture tour of art shcools. Teaching part time at Winchester and Croydon Art schools.
1984-1990 Private sales of work in UK and overseas. Commissioned to design COMMONWEALTH GAMES STAMPS for the Royal Mail. Major retrospective exhibition 'TAKING STOCK' at Newport Museum and Art Gallery in Wales in 1986.
1991-1995 Group shows throughout Britain including Jill George Gallery in London. Exhibition of literary portraits at Cheltenham Literary Festival. One-man show at The Alma Gallery, Bristol. Large painting and mixed media project entitled MODERN TIMES with a national touring exhibition including Herbert Art Gallery in Covenrtry and Newport Museum in Wales. Guest exhibitor and lecturer at 'Modern Times' symposium at the University of Manitoba, Canada.
1996 Living and working in Bath. Exhibition, 'CANADIAN VISTAS', at the Rooksmoor Gallery, inspired by travelling in Canada. Working on a series of pictures with the theme "Shoes" Joined Portal Gallery, Bond Street, London.
1997 'BETWEEN SHADOWS' - A one-man show at Portal Gallery, London. Work held in stock and shown continuously at Portal Gallery
1998 '50 FACES OF CONTEMPORARY ART' - Self portrait exhibition at 6 Chapel Row Gallery, Bath with works by Lucien Freud, Peter Blake, R.B. Kitaj, Tom Phillips etc. Portrait of Ken Loach, film director, purchased by the National Protrait Gallery, London. Opened own Gallery at 5 London Street, Walcot, Bath BA1 5BU and began to publish own work as limited edition prints.
1999 'BLUES AND SHOES'- A one man show of paintings and drawings featuring a series of vintage electric guitars, at own gallery in Bath. Portrait of William Shakespeare commissioned by Birmingham Reportory Theatre for their new 'Millenium Shakespeare Season'. 'SHADOW PLAY' - A one-man exhibition to launch 11 new limited edition prints at Nick Cudworth Artworks Gallery, Bath.
2000 Work included in Erik Satie Exhibition in Osaka, Bilbao and Cologne. 'PAST PRESENCE' - A one-man show at Portal Gallery, London. Painting of Shakespeare Head published as limited edition print by Marcel Publications and exhibited in travelling show by the Fine Art Trade Guild. Mixed exhibition at 'The Cornelius Gallery' Ross on Wye. ROYAL ACADEMY SUMMER EXHIBITION portrait of JOHN PEEL OBE. 'THE GUITARS' series at Frankfurt Art Fair.
2001 Stroud Museum in the Park acquire 'MODERN TIMES' for permanent display. Shakespeare portrait used as centrepiece for Shakespeare Festival at Bath Royal Theatre.
2002 'SHADOWS ON REFLECTION' - A one-man show of paintings and pastels at Portal Gallery, London. Work in JAMES JOYCE touring exhibition.
2003 Feb - March HEARTWORKS at 6, Chapel Row Gallery, Bath. March - April New Pastels at Portland Gallery, Piccadilly, London. July - SOCIETY FOR ART OF IMAGINATION TOURING SHOW, London, Glasgow, New York, Florida (PRIZE WINNER) Sept. - Dec. FROM DUSK TO DAWN. Continuous show of landscape paintings at 5, London Street Gallery, Bath.
2004 Pastels and oils in Mixed Show at LORING GALLERY USA Pastel “THE OLD MASTER CLASS” at HOLBURNE MUSEUM, Bath.
2005 ELEVATIONS AND REVELATIONS One-man show at PORTAL GALLERY, Piccadilly, London.
2006 R.W.A ACADEMY , Autumn Show - Bristol HOLBURNE MUSEUM, CONTEMPORARY PORTRAIT SHOW - Bath 6 CHAPEL ROW, Mixed Show, - Bath
2007 June - New York Art Fair June to September - Loring Gallery, Mass. USA October - Dyrham Park. One man show - "Going Dutch". October to December - RWA Academy Show, Bristol.
2008 Bath Royal Scientific and Literary Institute - One Man Show, prints and pastels. Bayart Gallery, Cardiff - Mixed Drawing Show. Dyrham Park House, Gloucestershire - One Man Show, prints and pastels.
2009 KOWALSKI GALLERY London - mixed show
JOHN THOMPSON GALLERY Aldeburgh, Suffolk - Summer Show
DYRHAM PARK National Trust House. One Man Summer show
R.U.H. Art for Life Charity Exhibition, mixed show
CARDIFF UNIVERSITY. Botanical Works Summer Show
2010 April-July: Dyrham Park - English Stiles. One Man Show.
Summer: Inspired - Mixed exhibition of Bath Landscapes at the Bath Gallery
September: The Bath Prize - Chair of prize winners judges
October: Self Portrait Show - Six Chapel Row Gallery, Bath
2011 May-June : Still Life in Rock and Roll: Major one-man show - Octagon Gallery, Bath.
2012 NINE WHITE HORSES; January. Sell out one man show Nick Cudworth Gallery.
ELEVATIONS AND REVELATIONS February – October. one man show Giclee Prints. Royal United Hospital .
MIXED SUMMER SHOW – June – September - The Biscuit Factory, Newcastle on Tyne
STILL LIFE IN ROCK AND ROLL – September – Museum in the Park, Stroud. Glos.
BATH LANDSCAPES – November ongoing. The Loft, Bartlett St, Bath

RE-RELEASE OF ALL ARCHIVAL SIREN RECORDINGS WITH BIOGRAPHICAL TEXT –December - Cherry Red Records
Pencil Sketch Pics Of  Nature Of  Sceneries Landscapes Of  Flowers Of  Girls Of  People Tumblr Of Roses Of  Eyes Of  Love  
Pencil Sketch Pics Of  Nature Of  Sceneries Landscapes Of  Flowers Of  Girls Of  People Tumblr Of Roses Of  Eyes Of  Love  
Pencil Sketch Pics Of  Nature Of  Sceneries Landscapes Of  Flowers Of  Girls Of  People Tumblr Of Roses Of  Eyes Of  Love  
Pencil Sketch Pics Of  Nature Of  Sceneries Landscapes Of  Flowers Of  Girls Of  People Tumblr Of Roses Of  Eyes Of  Love  
Pencil Sketch Pics Of  Nature Of  Sceneries Landscapes Of  Flowers Of  Girls Of  People Tumblr Of Roses Of  Eyes Of  Love  
Pencil Sketch Pics Of  Nature Of  Sceneries Landscapes Of  Flowers Of  Girls Of  People Tumblr Of Roses Of  Eyes Of  Love  
Pencil Sketch Pics Of  Nature Of  Sceneries Landscapes Of  Flowers Of  Girls Of  People Tumblr Of Roses Of  Eyes Of  Love  
Pencil Sketch Pics Of  Nature Of  Sceneries Landscapes Of  Flowers Of  Girls Of  People Tumblr Of Roses Of  Eyes Of  Love  
Pencil Sketch Pics Of  Nature Of  Sceneries Landscapes Of  Flowers Of  Girls Of  People Tumblr Of Roses Of  Eyes Of  Love  
Pencil Sketch Pics Of  Nature Of  Sceneries Landscapes Of  Flowers Of  Girls Of  People Tumblr Of Roses Of  Eyes Of  Love  
Pencil Sketch Pics Of  Nature Of  Sceneries Landscapes Of  Flowers Of  Girls Of  People Tumblr Of Roses Of  Eyes Of  Love  
Pencil Sketch Pics Of  Nature Of  Sceneries Landscapes Of  Flowers Of  Girls Of  People Tumblr Of Roses Of  Eyes Of  Love  
Pencil Sketch Pics Of  Nature Of  Sceneries Landscapes Of  Flowers Of  Girls Of  People Tumblr Of Roses Of  Eyes Of  Love  
Pencil Sketch Pics Of  Nature Of  Sceneries Landscapes Of  Flowers Of  Girls Of  People Tumblr Of Roses Of  Eyes Of  Love  
Pencil Sketch Pics Of  Nature Of  Sceneries Landscapes Of  Flowers Of  Girls Of  People Tumblr Of Roses Of  Eyes Of  Love  
Pencil Sketch Pics Of  Nature Of  Sceneries Landscapes Of  Flowers Of  Girls Of  People Tumblr Of Roses Of  Eyes Of  Love  
Pencil Sketch Pics Of  Nature Of  Sceneries Landscapes Of  Flowers Of  Girls Of  People Tumblr Of Roses Of  Eyes Of  Love  

Pencil Sketch Effect Of Nature Of Sceneries Landscapes Of Flowers Of Girls Of People Tumblr Of Roses Of Eyes Of Love

Pencil Sketch Effect Biography

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Charles Robert Darwin, FRS (12 February 1809 – 19 April 1882) was an English naturalist and geologist,[1] best known for his contributions to evolutionary theory.[I] He established that all species of life have descended over time from common ancestors,[2] and in a joint publication with Alfred Russell Wallace introduced his scientific theory that this branching pattern of evolution resulted from a process that he called natural selection, in which the struggle for existence has a similar effect to the artificial selection involved in selective breeding.[3]
Darwin published his theory of evolution with compelling evidence in his 1859 book On the Origin of Species, overcoming scientific rejection of earlier concepts of transmutation of species.[4][5] By the 1870s the scientific community and much of the general public had accepted evolution as a fact. However, many favoured competing explanations and it was not until the emergence of the modern evolutionary synthesis from the 1930s to the 1950s that a broad consensus developed in which natural selection was the basic mechanism of evolution.[6][7] In modified form, Darwin's scientific discovery is the unifying theory of the life sciences, explaining the diversity of life.[8][9]
Darwin's early interest in nature led him to neglect his medical education at the University of Edinburgh; instead, he helped to investigate marine invertebrates. Studies at the University of Cambridge encouraged his passion for natural science.[10] His five-year voyage on HMS Beagle established him as an eminent geologist whose observations and theories supported Charles Lyell's uniformitarian ideas, and publication of his journal of the voyage made him famous as a popular author.[11]
Puzzled by the geographical distribution of wildlife and fossils he collected on the voyage, Darwin began detailed investigations and in 1838 conceived his theory of natural selection.[12] Although he discussed his ideas with several naturalists, he needed time for extensive research and his geological work had priority.[13] He was writing up his theory in 1858 when Alfred Russel Wallace sent him an essay which described the same idea, prompting immediate joint publication of both of their theories.[14] Darwin's work established evolutionary descent with modification as the dominant scientific explanation of diversification in nature.[6] In 1871 he examined human evolution and sexual selection in The Descent of Man, and Selection in Relation to Sex, followed by The Expression of the Emotions in Man and Animals. His research on plants was published in a series of books, and in his final book, he examined earthworms and their effect on soil.[15]
In recognition of Darwin's pre-eminence as a scientist, he was honoured with a major ceremonial funeral and buried in Westminster Abbey, close to John Herschel and Isaac Newton.[16] Darwin has been described as one of the most influential figures in human history.[17][18]
Contents  [hide]
1 Biography
1.1 Early life and education
1.2 Voyage of the Beagle
1.3 Inception of Darwin's evolutionary theory
1.4 Overwork, illness, and marriage
1.4.1 Malthus and natural selection
1.5 Geology books, Barnacles, evolutionary research
1.6 Publication of the theory of natural selection
1.7 Responses to publication
1.8 Descent of Man, sexual selection, and botany
1.9 Death and legacy
1.10 Children
2 Views and opinions
2.1 Religious views
2.2 Human society
3 Evolutionary social movements
4 Commemoration
5 Works
6 See also
7 Notes
8 Citations
9 References
10 External links
Biography

Early life and education
See also: Charles Darwin's education and Darwin-Wedgwood family
Charles Robert Darwin was born in Shrewsbury, Shropshire, England on 12 February 1809 at his family home, The Mount.[19] He was the fifth of six children of wealthy society doctor and financier Robert Darwin, and Susannah Darwin (née Wedgwood). He was the grandson of two prominent abolitionists: Erasmus Darwin on his father's side, and of Josiah Wedgwood on his mother's side.
Three quarter length portrait of seated boy smiling and looking at the viewer. He has straight mid brown hair, and wears dark clothes with a large frilly white collar. In his lap he holds a pot of flowering plants

The seven-year-old Charles Darwin in 1816.
Both families were largely Unitarian, though the Wedgwoods were adopting Anglicanism. Robert Darwin, himself quietly a freethinker, had baby Charles baptised in November 1809 in the Anglican St Chad's Church, Shrewsbury, but Charles and his siblings attended the Unitarian chapel with their mother. The eight-year-old Charles already had a taste for natural history and collecting when he joined the day school run by its preacher in 1817. That July, his mother died. From September 1818 he joined his older brother Erasmus attending the nearby Anglican Shrewsbury School as a boarder.[20]
Darwin spent the summer of 1825 as an apprentice doctor, helping his father treat the poor of Shropshire, before going to the University of Edinburgh Medical School, at the time the best medical school in the UK, with his brother Erasmus in October 1825. He found lectures dull and surgery distressing, so neglected his studies. He learned taxidermy from John Edmonstone, a freed black slave who had accompanied Charles Waterton in the South American rainforest, and often sat with this "very pleasant and intelligent man".[21]
In Darwin's second year he joined the Plinian Society, a student natural history group whose debates strayed into radical materialism. He assisted Robert Edmond Grant's investigations of the anatomy and life cycle of marine invertebrates in the Firth of Forth, and on 27 March 1827 presented at the Plinian his own discovery that black spores found in oyster shells were the eggs of a skate leech. One day, Grant praised Lamarck's evolutionary ideas. Darwin was astonished by Grant's audacity, but had recently read similar ideas in his grandfather Erasmus' journals.[22] Darwin was rather bored by Robert Jameson's natural history course which covered geology including the debate between Neptunism and Plutonism. He learned classification of plants, and assisted with work on the collections of the University Museum, one of the largest museums in Europe at the time.[23]
This neglect of medical studies annoyed his father, who shrewdly sent him to Christ's College, Cambridge, for a Bachelor of Arts degree as the first step towards becoming an Anglican parson. As Darwin was unqualified for the Tripos, he joined the ordinary degree course in January 1828.[24] He preferred riding and shooting to studying. His cousin William Darwin Fox introduced him to the popular craze for beetle collecting; Darwin pursued this zealously, getting some of his finds published in Stevens' Illustrations of British entomology. He became a close friend and follower of botany professor John Stevens Henslow and met other leading naturalists who saw scientific work as religious natural theology, becoming known to these dons as "the man who walks with Henslow". When his own exams drew near, Darwin focused on his studies and was delighted by the language and logic of William Paley's Evidences of Christianity.[25] In his final examination in January 1831 Darwin did well, coming tenth out of 178 candidates for the ordinary degree.[26]
Darwin had to stay at Cambridge until June. He studied Paley's Natural Theology, which made an argument for divine design in nature, explaining adaptation as God acting through laws of nature.[27] He read John Herschel's new book, which described the highest aim of natural philosophy as understanding such laws through inductive reasoning based on observation, and Alexander von Humboldt's Personal Narrative of scientific travels. Inspired with "a burning zeal" to contribute, Darwin planned to visit Tenerife with some classmates after graduation to study natural history in the tropics. In preparation, he joined Adam Sedgwick's geology course, then travelled with him in the summer for a fortnight, in order to map strata in Wales.[28]
Voyage of the Beagle
For more details on this topic, see Second voyage of HMS Beagle.
Route from Plymouth, England, south to Cape Verde then southwest across the Atlantic to Bahia, Brazil, south to Rio de Janeiro, Montevideo, the Falkland Islands, round the tip of South America then north to Valparaiso and Callao. Northwest to the Galapagos Islands before sailing west across the Pacific to New Zealand, Sydney, Hobart in Tasmania, and King George's Sound in Western Australia. Northwest to the Keeling Islands, southwest to Mauritius and Cape Town, then northwest to Bahia and northeast back to Plymouth.

The voyage of the Beagle
After a week with student friends at Barmouth, Darwin returned home on 29 August to find a letter from Henslow proposing him as a suitable (if unfinished) gentleman naturalist for a self-funded supernumerary place on HMS Beagle with captain Robert FitzRoy, more as a companion than a mere collector. The ship was to leave in four weeks on an expedition to chart the coastline of South America.[29] Robert Darwin objected to his son's planned two-year voyage, regarding it as a waste of time, but was persuaded by his brother-in-law, Josiah Wedgwood, to agree to (and fund) his son's participation.[30]
After delays, the voyage began on 27 December 1831; it lasted almost five years. As FitzRoy had intended, Darwin spent most of that time on land investigating geology and making natural history collections, while the Beagle surveyed and charted coasts.[6][31] He kept careful notes of his observations and theoretical speculations, and at intervals during the voyage his specimens were sent to Cambridge together with letters including a copy of his journal for his family.[32] He had some expertise in geology, beetle collecting and dissecting marine invertebrates, but in all other areas was a novice and ably collected specimens for expert appraisal.[33] Despite suffering badly from seasickness, Darwin wrote copious notes while on board the ship. Most of his zoology notes are about marine invertebrates, starting with plankton collected in a calm spell.[31][34]
On their first stop ashore at St. Jago, Darwin found that a white band high in the volcanic rock cliffs included seashells. FitzRoy had given him the first volume of Charles Lyell's Principles of Geology which set out uniformitarian concepts of land slowly rising or falling over immense periods,[II] and Darwin saw things Lyell's way, theorising and thinking of writing a book on geology.[35]
When they reached Brazil Darwin was delighted by the tropical forest,[36] but detested the sight of slavery.[37] The survey continued to the south in Patagonia. They stopped at Bahía Blanca, and in cliffs near Punta Alta Darwin made a major find of fossil bones of huge extinct mammals beside modern seashells, indicating recent extinction with no signs of change in climate or catastrophe. He identified the little-known Megatherium by a tooth and its association with bony armour which had at first seemed to him like a giant version of the armour on local armadillos. The finds brought great interest when they reached England.[38][39]
On rides with gauchos into the interior to explore geology and collect more fossils, Darwin gained social, political and anthropological insights into both native and colonial people at a time of revolution, and learnt that two types of rhea had separate but overlapping territories.[40][41] Further south he saw stepped plains of shingle and seashells as raised beaches showing a series of elevations. He read Lyell's second volume and accepted its view of "centres of creation" of species, but his discoveries and theorising challenged Lyell's ideas of smooth continuity and of extinction of species.[42][43]
On a sea inlet surrounded by steep hills, with high snow covered mountains in the distance, someone standing in an open canoe waves at a square-rigged sailing ship, seen from the front

As HMS Beagle surveyed the coasts of South America, Darwin theorised about geology and extinction of giant mammals.
Three Fuegians on board, who had been seized during the first Beagle voyage and had spent a year in England, were taken back to Tierra del Fuego as missionaries. Darwin found them friendly and civilised, yet their relatives seemed "miserable, degraded savages", as different as wild from domesticated animals.[44] To Darwin the difference showed cultural advances, not racial inferiority. Unlike his scientist friends, he now thought there was no unbridgeable gap between humans and animals.[45] A year on, the mission had been abandoned. The Fuegian they had named Jemmy Button lived like the other natives, had a wife, and had no wish to return to England.[46]
Darwin experienced an earthquake in Chile and saw signs that the land had just been raised, including mussel-beds stranded above high tide. High in the Andes he saw seashells, and several fossil trees that had grown on a sand beach. He theorised that as the land rose, oceanic islands sank, and coral reefs round them grew to form atolls.[47][48]
On the geologically new Galápagos Islands Darwin looked for evidence attaching wildlife to an older "centre of creation", and found mockingbirds allied to those in Chile but differing from island to island. He heard that slight variations in the shape of tortoise shells showed which island they came from, but failed to collect them, even after eating tortoises taken on board as food.[49][50] In Australia the marsupial rat-kangaroo and the platypus seemed so unusual that Darwin thought it was almost as though two distinct Creators had been at work.[51] He found the Aborigines "good-humoured & pleasant", and noted their depletion by European settlement.[52]
The Beagle investigated how the atolls of the Cocos (Keeling) Islands had formed, and the survey supported Darwin's theorising.[48] FitzRoy began writing the official Narrative of the Beagle voyages, and after reading Darwin's diary he proposed incorporating it into the account.[53] Darwin's Journal was eventually rewritten as a separate third volume, on natural history.[54]
In Cape Town Darwin and FitzRoy met John Herschel, who had recently written to Lyell praising his uniformitarianism as opening bold speculation on "that mystery of mysteries, the replacement of extinct species by others" as "a natural in contradistinction to a miraculous process".[55] When organising his notes as the ship sailed home, Darwin wrote that if his growing suspicions about the mockingbirds, the tortoises and the Falkland Islands Fox were correct, "such facts undermine the stability of Species", then cautiously added "would" before "undermine".[56] He later wrote that such facts "seemed to me to throw some light on the origin of species".[57]
Inception of Darwin's evolutionary theory
For more details on this topic, see Inception of Darwin's theory.
Three quarter length portrait of Darwin aged about 30, with straight brown hair receding from his high forehead and long side-whiskers, smiling quietly, in wide lapelled jacket, waistcoat and high collar with cravat.

While still a young man, Charles Darwin joined the scientific elite
When the Beagle reached Falmouth, Cornwall, on 2 October 1836, Darwin was already a celebrity in scientific circles as in December 1835 Henslow had fostered his former pupil's reputation by giving selected naturalists a pamphlet of Darwin's geological letters.[58] Darwin visited his home in Shrewsbury and saw relatives, then hurried to Cambridge to see Henslow, who advised on finding naturalists available to catalogue the collections and agreed to take on the botanical specimens. Darwin's father organised investments, enabling his son to be a self-funded gentleman scientist, and an excited Darwin went round the London institutions being fêted and seeking experts to describe the collections. Zoologists had a huge backlog of work, and there was a danger of specimens just being left in storage.[59]
Charles Lyell eagerly met Darwin for the first time on 29 October and soon introduced him to the up-and-coming anatomist Richard Owen, who had the facilities of the Royal College of Surgeons to work on the fossil bones collected by Darwin. Owen's surprising results included other gigantic extinct ground sloths as well as the Megatherium, a near complete skeleton of the unknown Scelidotherium and a hippopotamus-sized rodent-like skull named Toxodon resembling a giant capybara. The armour fragments were actually from Glyptodon, a huge armadillo-like creature as Darwin had initially thought.[60][39] These extinct creatures were related to living species in South America.[61]
In mid-December Darwin took lodgings in Cambridge to organise work on his collections and rewrite his Journal.[62] He wrote his first paper, showing that the South American landmass was slowly rising, and with Lyell's enthusiastic backing read it to the Geological Society of London on 4 January 1837. On the same day, he presented his mammal and bird specimens to the Zoological Society. The ornithologist John Gould soon announced that the Galapagos birds that Darwin had thought a mixture of blackbirds, "gros-beaks" and finches, were, in fact, twelve separate species of finches. On 17 February Darwin was elected to the Council of the Geological Society, and Lyell's presidential address presented Owen's findings on Darwin's fossils, stressing geographical continuity of species as supporting his uniformitarian ideas.[63]
Early in March, Darwin moved to London to be near this work, joining Lyell's social circle of scientists and experts such as Charles Babbage,[64] who described God as a programmer of laws. Darwin stayed with his freethinking brother Erasmus, part of this Whig circle and close friend of writer Harriet Martineau who promoted Malthusianism underlying the controversial Whig Poor Law reforms to stop welfare from causing overpopulation and more poverty. As a Unitarian she welcomed the radical implications of transmutation of species, promoted by Grant and younger surgeons influenced by Geoffroy. Transmutation was anathema to Anglicans defending social order,[65] but reputable scientists openly discussed the subject and there was wide interest in John Herschel's letter praising Lyell's approach as a way to find a natural cause of the origin of new species.[55]
Gould met Darwin and told him that the Galápagos mockingbirds from different islands were separate species, not just varieties, and what Darwin had thought was a "wren" was also in the finch group. Darwin had not labelled the finches by island, but from the notes of others on the Beagle, including FitzRoy, he allocated species to islands.[66] The two rheas were also distinct species, and on 14 March Darwin announced how their distribution changed going southwards.[67]
A page of hand-written notes, with a sketch of branching lines.

In mid-July 1837 Darwin started his "B" notebook on Transmutation of Species, and on page 36 wrote "I think" above his first evolutionary tree.
By mid-March, Darwin was speculating in his Red Notebook on the possibility that "one species does change into another" to explain the geographical distribution of living species such as the rheas, and extinct ones such as the strange Macrauchenia which resembled a giant guanaco. His thoughts on lifespan, asexual reproduction and sexual reproduction developed in his "B" notebook around mid-July on to variation in offspring "to adapt & alter the race to changing world" explaining the Galápagos tortoises, mockingbirds and rheas. He sketched branching descent, then a genealogical branching of a single evolutionary tree, in which "It is absurd to talk of one animal being higher than another", discarding Lamarck's independent lineages progressing to higher forms.[68]
Overwork, illness, and marriage
See also: Charles Darwin's health
While developing this intensive study of transmutation, Darwin became mired in more work. Still rewriting his Journal, he took on editing and publishing the expert reports on his collections, and with Henslow's help obtained a Treasury grant of £1,000 to sponsor this multi-volume Zoology of the Voyage of H.M.S. Beagle, a sum equivalent to about £77,000 in 2011.[69] He stretched the funding to include his planned books on geology, and agreed unrealistic dates with the publisher.[70] As the Victorian era began, Darwin pressed on with writing his Journal, and in August 1837 began correcting printer's proofs.[71]
Darwin's health suffered from the pressure. On 20 September he had "an uncomfortable palpitation of the heart", so his doctors urged him to "knock off all work" and live in the country for a few weeks. After visiting Shrewsbury he joined his Wedgwood relatives at Maer Hall, Staffordshire, but found them too eager for tales of his travels to give him much rest. His charming, intelligent, and cultured cousin Emma Wedgwood, nine months older than Darwin, was nursing his invalid aunt. His uncle Jos pointed out an area of ground where cinders had disappeared under loam and suggested that this might have been the work of earthworms, inspiring "a new & important theory" on their role in soil formation which Darwin presented at the Geological Society on 1 November.[72]
William Whewell pushed Darwin to take on the duties of Secretary of the Geological Society. After initially declining the work, he accepted the post in March 1838.[73] Despite the grind of writing and editing the Beagle reports, Darwin made remarkable progress on transmutation, taking every opportunity to question expert naturalists and, unconventionally, people with practical experience such as farmers and pigeon fanciers.[6][74] Over time his research drew on information from his relatives and children, the family butler, neighbours, colonists and former shipmates.[75] He included mankind in his speculations from the outset, and on seeing an orangutan in the zoo on 28 March 1838 noted its childlike behaviour.[76]
Three quarter length portrait of woman aged about 30, with dark hair in centre parting straight on top, then falling in curls on each side. She smiles pleasantly and is wearing an open necked blouse with a large shawl pulled over her arms

Darwin chose to marry his cousin, Emma Wedgwood.
The strain took a toll, and by June he was being laid up for days on end with stomach problems, headaches and heart symptoms. For the rest of his life, he was repeatedly incapacitated with episodes of stomach pains, vomiting, severe boils, palpitations, trembling and other symptoms, particularly during times of stress such as attending meetings or making social visits. The cause of Darwin's illness remained unknown, and attempts at treatment had little success.[77]
On 23 June he took a break and went "geologising" in Scotland. He visited Glen Roy in glorious weather to see the parallel "roads" cut into the hillsides at three heights. He later published his view that these were marine raised beaches, but then had to accept that they were shorelines of a proglacial lake.[78]
Fully recuperated, he returned to Shrewsbury in July. Used to jotting down daily notes on animal breeding, he scrawled rambling thoughts about career and prospects on two scraps of paper, one with columns headed "Marry" and "Not Marry". Advantages included "constant companion and a friend in old age ... better than a dog anyhow", against points such as "less money for books" and "terrible loss of time."[79] Having decided in favour, he discussed it with his father, then went to visit Emma on 29 July. He did not get around to proposing, but against his father's advice he mentioned his ideas on transmutation.[80]
Malthus and natural selection
Continuing his research in London, Darwin's wide reading now included the sixth edition of Malthus's An Essay on the Principle of Population, and on 28 September 1838 he noted its assertion that human "population, when unchecked, goes on doubling itself every twenty five years, or increases in a geometrical ratio", a geometric progression so that population soon exceeds food supply in what is known as a Malthusian catastrophe. Darwin was well prepared to compare this to de Candolle's "warring of the species" of plants and the struggle for existence among wildlife, explaining how numbers of a species kept roughly stable. As species always breed beyond available resources, favourable variations would make organisms better at surviving and passing the variations on to their offspring, while unfavourable variations would be lost. He wrote that the "final cause of all this wedging, must be to sort out proper structure, & adapt it to changes", so that "One may say there is a force like a hundred thousand wedges trying force into every kind of adapted structure into the gaps of in the economy of nature, or rather forming gaps by thrusting out weaker ones."[6][81] This would result in the formation of new species.[6][82] As he later wrote in his Autobiography:
In October 1838, that is, fifteen months after I had begun my systematic enquiry, I happened to read for amusement Malthus on Population, and being well prepared to appreciate the struggle for existence which everywhere goes on from long-continued observation of the habits of animals and plants, it at once struck me that under these circumstances favourable variations would tend to be preserved, and unfavourable ones to be destroyed. The result of this would be the formation of new species. Here, then, I had at last got a theory by which to work..."[83]
By mid December Darwin saw a similarity between farmers picking the best stock in selective breeding, and a Malthusian Nature selecting from chance variants so that "every part of newly acquired structure is fully practical and perfected",[84] thinking this comparison "a beautiful part of my theory".[85] He later called his theory natural selection, an analogy with what he termed the artificial selection of selective breeding.[6]
On 11 November, he returned to Maer and proposed to Emma, once more telling her his ideas. She accepted, then in exchanges of loving letters she showed how she valued his openness in sharing their differences, also expressing her strong Unitarian beliefs and concerns that his honest doubts might separate them in the afterlife.[86] While he was house-hunting in London, bouts of illness continued and Emma wrote urging him to get some rest, almost prophetically remarking "So don't be ill any more my dear Charley till I can be with you to nurse you." He found what they called "Macaw Cottage" (because of its gaudy interiors) in Gower Street, then moved his "museum" in over Christmas. On 24 January 1839 Darwin was elected a Fellow of the Royal Society.[87]
On 29 January Darwin and Emma Wedgwood were married at Maer in an Anglican ceremony arranged to suit the Unitarians, then immediately caught the train to London and their new home.[88]
Geology books, Barnacles, evolutionary research
For more details on this topic, see Development of Darwin's theory.
Darwin in his thirties, with his son dressed in a frock sitting on his knee.

Darwin in 1842 with his eldest son, William Erasmus Darwin
Darwin now had the framework of his theory of natural selection "by which to work",[83] as his "prime hobby".[89] His research included extensive experimental selective breeding of plants and animals, finding evidence that species were not fixed and investigating many detailed ideas to refine and substantiate his theory.[6] For fifteen years this work was in the background to his main occupation of writing on geology and publishing expert reports on the Beagle collections.[90]
When FitzRoy's Narrative was published in May 1839, Darwin's Journal and Remarks was such a success as the third volume that later that year it was published on its own.[91] Early in 1842, Darwin wrote about his ideas to Charles Lyell, who noted that his ally "denies seeing a beginning to each crop of species".[92]
Darwin's book The Structure and Distribution of Coral Reefs on his theory of atoll formation was published in May 1842 after more than three years of work, and he then wrote his first "pencil sketch" of his theory of natural selection.[93] To escape the pressures of London, the family moved to rural Down House in September.[94] On 11 January 1844 Darwin mentioned his theorising to the botanist Joseph Dalton Hooker, writing with melodramatic humour "it is like confessing a murder".[95][96] Hooker replied "There may in my opinion have been a series of productions on different spots, & also a gradual change of species. I shall be delighted to hear how you think that this change may have taken place, as no presently conceived opinions satisfy me on the subject."[97]
Path covered in sandy gravel winding through open woodland, with plants and shrubs growing on each side of the path.

Darwin's "sandwalk" at Down House was his usual "Thinking Path".[98]
By July, Darwin had expanded his "sketch" into a 230-page "Essay", to be expanded with his research results if he died prematurely.[99] In November the anonymously published sensational best-seller Vestiges of the Natural History of Creation brought wide interest in transmutation. Darwin scorned its amateurish geology and zoology, but carefully reviewed his own arguments. Controversy erupted, and it continued to sell well despite contemptuous dismissal by scientists.[100][101]
Darwin completed his third geological book in 1846. He now renewed a fascination and expertise in marine invertebrates, dating back to his student days with Grant, by dissecting and classifying the barnacles he had collected on the voyage, enjoying observing beautiful structures and thinking about comparisons with allied structures.[102] In 1847, Hooker read the "Essay" and sent notes that provided Darwin with the calm critical feedback that he needed, but would not commit himself and questioned Darwin's opposition to continuing acts of creation.[103]
In an attempt to improve his chronic ill health, Darwin went in 1849 to Dr. James Gully's Malvern spa and was surprised to find some benefit from hydrotherapy.[104] Then in 1851 his treasured daughter Annie fell ill, reawakening his fears that his illness might be hereditary, and after a long series of crises she died.[105]
In eight years of work on barnacles (Cirripedia), Darwin's theory helped him to find "homologies" showing that slightly changed body parts served different functions to meet new conditions, and in some genera he found minute males parasitic on hermaphrodites, showing an intermediate stage in evolution of distinct sexes.[106] In 1853 it earned him the Royal Society's Royal Medal, and it made his reputation as a biologist.[107] He resumed work on his theory of species in 1854, and in November realised that divergence in the character of descendants could be explained by them becoming adapted to "diversified places in the economy of nature".[108]
Publication of the theory of natural selection
For more details on this topic, see Publication of Darwin's theory.
Studio photo showing Darwin's characteristic large forehead and bushy eyebrows with deep set eyes, pug nose and mouth set in a determined look. He is bald on top, with dark hair and long side whiskers but no beard or moustache.

Charles Darwin, aged 46 in 1855, by then working towards publication of his theory of natural selection. He wrote to Hooker about this portrait, "if I really have as bad an expression, as my photograph gives me, how I can have one single friend is surprising."[109]
By the start of 1856, Darwin was investigating whether eggs and seeds could survive travel across seawater to spread species across oceans. Hooker increasingly doubted the traditional view that species were fixed, but their young friend Thomas Henry Huxley was firmly against transmutation of species. Lyell was intrigued by Darwin's speculations without realising their extent. When he read a paper by Alfred Russel Wallace, "On the Law which has Regulated the Introduction of New Species", he saw similarities with Darwin's thoughts and urged him to publish to establish precedence. Though Darwin saw no threat, he began work on a short paper. Finding answers to difficult questions held him up repeatedly, and he expanded his plans to a "big book on species" titled Natural Selection. He continued his researches, obtaining information and specimens from naturalists worldwide including Wallace who was working in Borneo. The American botanist Asa Gray showed similar interests, and on 5 September 1857 Darwin sent Gray a detailed outline of his ideas including an abstract of Natural Selection. In December, Darwin received a letter from Wallace asking if the book would examine human origins. He responded that he would avoid that subject, "so surrounded with prejudices", while encouraging Wallace's theorising and adding that "I go much further than you."[110]
Darwin's book was only partly written when, on 18 June 1858, he received a paper from Wallace describing natural selection. Shocked that he had been "forestalled", Darwin sent it on that day to Lyell, as requested by Wallace,[111][112] and although Wallace had not asked for publication, Darwin suggested he would send it to any journal that Wallace chose. His family was in crisis with children in the village dying of scarlet fever, and he put matters in the hands of Lyell and Hooker. After some discussion, they decided on a joint presentation at the Linnean Society on 1 July of On the Tendency of Species to form Varieties; and on the Perpetuation of Varieties and Species by Natural Means of Selection; however, Darwin's baby son died of the scarlet fever and he was too distraught to attend.[113]
There was little immediate attention to this announcement of the theory; the president of the Linnean Society remarked in May 1859 that the year had not been marked by any revolutionary discoveries.[114] Only one review rankled enough for Darwin to recall it later; Professor Samuel Haughton of Dublin claimed that "all that was new in them was false, and what was true was old."[115] Darwin struggled for thirteen months to produce an abstract of his "big book", suffering from ill health but getting constant encouragement from his scientific friends. Lyell arranged to have it published by John Murray.[116]
On the Origin of Species proved unexpectedly popular, with the entire stock of 1,250 copies oversubscribed when it went on sale to booksellers on 22 November 1859.[117] In the book, Darwin set out "one long argument" of detailed observations, inferences and consideration of anticipated objections.[118] His only allusion to human evolution was the understatement that "light will be thrown on the origin of man and his history".[119] His theory is simply stated in the introduction:
As many more individuals of each species are born than can possibly survive; and as, consequently, there is a frequently recurring struggle for existence, it follows that any being, if it vary however slightly in any manner profitable to itself, under the complex and sometimes varying conditions of life, will have a better chance of surviving, and thus be naturally selected. From the strong principle of inheritance, any selected variety will tend to propagate its new and modified form.[120]

He put a strong case for common descent, and at the end of the book concluded that:
There is grandeur in this view of life, with its several powers, having been originally breathed into a few forms or into one; and that, whilst this planet has gone cycling on according to the fixed law of gravity, from so simple a beginning endless forms most beautiful and most wonderful have been, and are being, evolved.[121]

The last word was the only variant of "evolved" in the first five editions of the book. "Evolutionism" at that time was associated with other concepts, most commonly with embryological development, and Darwin first used the word evolution in The Descent of Man in 1871, before adding it in 1872 to the 6th edition of The Origin of Species.[122]
Responses to publication
Three quarter length portrait of sixty-year-old man, balding, with white hair and long white bushy beard, with heavy eyebrows shading his eyes looking thoughtfully into the distance, wearing a wide lapelled jacket.

During the Darwin family's 1868 holiday in her Isle of Wight cottage, Julia Margaret Cameron took portraits showing the bushy beard Darwin grew between 1862 and 1866.
White bearded head of Darwin with the body of a crouching ape.

An 1871 caricature following publication of The Descent of Man was typical of many showing Darwin with an ape body, identifying him in popular culture as the leading author of evolutionary theory.[123]
For more details on this topic, see Reaction to On the Origin of Species.
The book aroused international interest, with less controversy than had greeted the popular Vestiges of the Natural History of Creation.[124] Though Darwin's illness kept him away from the public debates, he eagerly scrutinised the scientific response, commenting on press cuttings, reviews, articles, satires and caricatures, and corresponded on it with colleagues worldwide.[125] Darwin had only said "Light will be thrown on the origin of man",[126] but the first review claimed it made a creed of the "men from monkeys" idea from Vestiges.[127] Amongst early favourable responses, Huxley's reviews swiped at Richard Owen, leader of the scientific establishment Huxley was trying to overthrow.[128] In April, Owen's review attacked Darwin's friends and condescendingly dismissed his ideas, angering Darwin,[129] but Owen and others began to promote ideas of supernaturally guided evolution.[130]
The Church of England's response was mixed. Darwin's old Cambridge tutors Sedgwick and Henslow dismissed the ideas, but liberal clergymen interpreted natural selection as an instrument of God's design, with the cleric Charles Kingsley seeing it as "just as noble a conception of Deity".[131] In 1860, the publication of Essays and Reviews by seven liberal Anglican theologians diverted clerical attention from Darwin, with its ideas including higher criticism attacked by church authorities as heresy. In it, Baden Powell argued that miracles broke God's laws, so belief in them was atheistic, and praised "Mr Darwin's masterly volume [supporting] the grand principle of the self-evolving powers of nature".[132] Asa Gray discussed teleology with Darwin, who imported and distributed Gray's pamphlet on theistic evolution, Natural Selection is not inconsistent with Natural Theology.[131][133] The most famous confrontation was at the public 1860 Oxford evolution debate during a meeting of the British Association for the Advancement of Science, where the Bishop of Oxford Samuel Wilberforce, though not opposed to transmutation of species, argued against Darwin's explanation and human descent from apes. Joseph Hooker argued strongly for Darwin, and Thomas Huxley's legendary retort, that he would rather be descended from an ape than a man who misused his gifts, came to symbolise a triumph of science over religion.[131][134]
Even Darwin's close friends Gray, Hooker, Huxley and Lyell still expressed various reservations but gave strong support, as did many others, particularly younger naturalists. Gray and Lyell sought reconciliation with faith, while Huxley portrayed a polarisation between religion and science. He campaigned pugnaciously against the authority of the clergy in education,[131] aiming to overturn the dominance of clergymen and aristocratic amateurs under Owen in favour of a new generation of professional scientists. Owen's claim that brain anatomy proved humans to be a separate biological order from apes was shown to be false by Huxley in a long running dispute parodied by Kingsley as the "Great Hippocampus Question", and discredited Owen.[135]
Darwinism became a movement covering a wide range of evolutionary ideas. In 1863 Lyell's Geological Evidences of the Antiquity of Man popularised prehistory, though his caution on evolution disappointed Darwin. Weeks later Huxley's Evidence as to Man's Place in Nature showed that anatomically, humans are apes, then The Naturalist on the River Amazons by Henry Walter Bates provided empirical evidence of natural selection.[136] Lobbying brought Darwin Britain's highest scientific honour, the Royal Society's Copley Medal, awarded on 3 November 1864.[137] That day, Huxley held the first meeting of what became the influential X Club devoted to "science, pure and free, untrammelled by religious dogmas".[138] By the end of the decade most scientists agreed that evolution occurred, but only a minority supported Darwin's view that the chief mechanism was natural selection.[139]
The Origin of Species was translated into many languages, becoming a staple scientific text attracting thoughtful attention from all walks of life, including the "working men" who flocked to Huxley's lectures.[140] Darwin's theory also resonated with various movements at the time[III] and became a key fixture of popular culture.[IV] Cartoonists parodied animal ancestry in an old tradition of showing humans with animal traits, and in Britain these droll images served to popularise Darwin's theory in an unthreatening way. While ill in 1862 Darwin began growing a beard, and when he reappeared in public in 1866 caricatures of him as an ape helped to identify all forms of evolutionism with Darwinism.[123]
Descent of Man, sexual selection, and botany
Head and shoulders portrait, increasingly bald with rather uneven bushy white eyebrows and beard, his wrinkled forehead suggesting a puzzled frown

By 1878, an increasingly famous Darwin had suffered years of illness.
More detailed articles cover Darwin's life from Orchids to Variation, from Descent of Man to Emotions and from Insectivorous Plants to Worms
Despite repeated bouts of illness during the last twenty-two years of his life, Darwin's work continued. Having published On the Origin of Species as an abstract of his theory, he pressed on with experiments, research, and writing of his "big book". He covered human descent from earlier animals including evolution of society and of mental abilities, as well as explaining decorative beauty in wildlife and diversifying into innovative plant studies.
Enquiries about insect pollination led in 1861 to novel studies of wild orchids, showing adaptation of their flowers to attract specific moths to each species and ensure cross fertilisation. In 1862 Fertilisation of Orchids gave his first detailed demonstration of the power of natural selection to explain complex ecological relationships, making testable predictions. As his health declined, he lay on his sickbed in a room filled with inventive experiments to trace the movements of climbing plants.[141] Admiring visitors included Ernst Haeckel, a zealous proponent of Darwinismus incorporating Lamarckism and Goethe's idealism.[142] Wallace remained supportive, though he increasingly turned to Spiritualism.[143]
The Variation of Animals and Plants under Domestication of 1868 was the first part of Darwin's planned "big book", and included his unsuccessful hypothesis of pangenesis attempting to explain heredity. It sold briskly at first, despite its size, and was translated into many languages. He wrote most of a second part, on natural selection, but it remained unpublished in his lifetime.[144]
Darwin's figure is shown seated, dressed in a toga, in a circular frame labelled "TIME'S METER" around which a succession of figures spiral, starting with an earthworm emerging from the broken letters "CHAOS" then worms with head and limbs, followed by monkeys, apes, primitive men, a loin cloth clad hunter with a club, and a gentleman who tips his top hat to Darwin.

Punch's almanac for 1882, published shortly before Darwin's death, depicts him amidst evolution from chaos to Victorian gentleman with the title Man Is But A Worm.
Lyell had already popularised human prehistory, and Huxley had shown that anatomically humans are apes.[136] With The Descent of Man, and Selection in Relation to Sex published in 1871, Darwin set out evidence from numerous sources that humans are animals, showing continuity of physical and mental attributes, and presented sexual selection to explain impractical animal features such as the peacock's plumage as well as human evolution of culture, differences between sexes, and physical and cultural racial characteristics, while emphasising that humans are all one species.[145] His research using images was expanded in his 1872 book The Expression of the Emotions in Man and Animals, one of the first books to feature printed photographs, which discussed the evolution of human psychology and its continuity with the behaviour of animals. Both books proved very popular, and Darwin was impressed by the general assent with which his views had been received, remarking that "everybody is talking about it without being shocked."[146] His conclusion was "that man with all his noble qualities, with sympathy which feels for the most debased, with benevolence which extends not only to other men but to the humblest living creature, with his god-like intellect which has penetrated into the movements and constitution of the solar system–with all these exalted powers–Man still bears in his bodily frame the indelible stamp of his lowly origin."[147]
His evolution-related experiments and investigations led to books on Insectivorous Plants, The Effects of Cross and Self Fertilisation in the Vegetable Kingdom, different forms of flowers on plants of the same species, and The Power of Movement in Plants. In his last book he returned to The Formation of Vegetable Mould through the Action of Worms.
Death and legacy
See also: Darwin from Insectivorous Plants to Worms
In 1882 he was diagnosed with what was called "angina pectoris" which then meant coronary thrombosis and disease of the heart. At the time of his death, the physicians diagnosed "anginal attacks", and "heart-failure".[148]
He died at Down House on 19 April 1882. His last words were to his family, telling Emma "I am not the least afraid of death – Remember what a good wife you have been to me – Tell all my children to remember how good they have been to me", then while she rested, he repeatedly told Henrietta and Francis "It's almost worth while to be sick to be nursed by you".[149] He had expected to be buried in St Mary's churchyard at Downe, but at the request of Darwin's colleagues, after public and parliamentary petitioning, William Spottiswoode (President of the Royal Society) arranged for Darwin to be buried in Westminster Abbey, close to John Herschel and Isaac Newton.[16][150]


Man dressed as Charles Darwin during Lyme Regis Fossil Festival.
Darwin had convinced most scientists that evolution as descent with modification was correct, and he was regarded as a great scientist who had revolutionised ideas. Though few agreed with his view that "natural selection has been the main but not the exclusive means of modification", he was honoured in June 1909 by more than 400 officials and scientists from across the world who met in Cambridge to commemorate his centenary and the fiftieth anniversary of On the Origin of Species.[151] During this period, which has been called "the eclipse of Darwinism", scientists proposed various alternative evolutionary mechanisms which eventually proved untenable. The development of the modern evolutionary synthesis from the 1930s to the 1950s, incorporating natural selection with population genetics and Mendelian genetics, brought broad scientific consensus that natural selection was the basic mechanism of evolution. This synthesis set the frame of reference for modern debates and refinements of the theory.[7]
Children
Darwin's children
William Erasmus Darwin (27 December 1839 – 1914)
Anne Elizabeth Darwin (2 March 1841 – 23 April 1851)
Mary Eleanor Darwin (23 September 1842 – 16 October 1842)
Henrietta Emma "Etty" Darwin (25 September 1843 – 1929)
George Howard Darwin (9 July 1845 – 7 December 1912)
Elizabeth "Bessy" Darwin (8 July 1847 – 1926)
Francis Darwin (16 August 1848 – 19 September 1925)
Leonard Darwin (15 January 1850 – 26 March 1943)
Horace Darwin (13 May 1851 – 29 September 1928)
Charles Waring Darwin (6 December 1856 – 28 June 1858)
The Darwins had ten children: two died in infancy, and Annie's death at the age of ten had a devastating effect on her parents. Charles was a devoted father and uncommonly attentive to his children.[10] Whenever they fell ill, he feared that they might have inherited weaknesses from inbreeding due to the close family ties he shared with his wife and cousin, Emma Wedgwood. He examined this topic in his writings, contrasting it with the advantages of crossing amongst many organisms.[152] Despite his fears, most of the surviving children and many of their descendants went on to have distinguished careers (see Darwin-Wedgwood family).[153]
Of his surviving children, George, Francis and Horace became Fellows of the Royal Society,[154] distinguished as astronomer,[155] botanist and civil engineer, respectively. His son Leonard went on to be a soldier, politician, economist, eugenicist and mentor of the statistician and evolutionary biologist Ronald Fisher.[156]
Views and opinions

Religious views
For more details on this topic, see religious views of Charles Darwin.
Three quarter length studio photo of seated girl about nine years old, looking slightly plump and rather solemn, in a striped dress, holding a basket of flowers on her lap.

In 1851 Darwin was devastated when his daughter Annie died. By then his faith in Christianity had dwindled, and he had stopped going to church.[157]
Darwin's family tradition was nonconformist Unitarianism, while his father and grandfather were freethinkers, and his baptism and boarding school were Church of England.[20] When going to Cambridge to become an Anglican clergyman, he did not doubt the literal truth of the Bible.[25] He learned John Herschel's science which, like William Paley's natural theology, sought explanations in laws of nature rather than miracles and saw adaptation of species as evidence of design.[27][28] On board the Beagle, Darwin was quite orthodox and would quote the Bible as an authority on morality.[158] He looked for "centres of creation" to explain distribution,[49] and related the antlion found near kangaroos to distinct "periods of Creation".[51]
By his return he was critical of the Bible as history, and wondered why all religions should not be equally valid.[158] In the next few years, while intensively speculating on geology and transmutation of species, he gave much thought to religion and openly discussed this with his wife Emma, whose beliefs also came from intensive study and questioning.[86] The theodicy of Paley and Thomas Malthus vindicated evils such as starvation as a result of a benevolent creator's laws which had an overall good effect. To Darwin, natural selection produced the good of adaptation but removed the need for design,[159] and he could not see the work of an omnipotent deity in all the pain and suffering such as the ichneumon wasp paralysing caterpillars as live food for its eggs.[133] He still viewed organisms as perfectly adapted, and On the Origin of Species reflects theological views. Though he thought of religion as a tribal survival strategy, Darwin was reluctant to give up the idea of God as an ultimate lawgiver. He was increasingly troubled by the problem of evil.[160][161]
Darwin remained close friends with the vicar of Downe, John Innes, and continued to play a leading part in the parish work of the church,[162] but from around 1849 would go for a walk on Sundays while his family attended church.[157] He considered it "absurd to doubt that a man might be an ardent theist and an evolutionist"[163][164] and, though reticent about his religious views, in 1879 he wrote that "I have never been an atheist in the sense of denying the existence of a God. – I think that generally ... an agnostic would be the most correct description of my state of mind."[86][163]
The "Lady Hope Story", published in 1915, claimed that Darwin had reverted to Christianity on his sickbed. The claims were repudiated by Darwin's children and have been dismissed as false by historians.[165]
Human society
Darwin's views on social and political issues reflected his time and social position. He thought men's eminence over women was the outcome of sexual selection, a view disputed by Antoinette Brown Blackwell in The Sexes Throughout Nature.[166] He valued European civilisation and saw colonisation as spreading its benefits, with the sad but inevitable effect of extermination of savage peoples who did not become civilised. Darwin's theories presented this as natural, and were cited to promote policies which went against his humanitarian principles.[167] Darwin was strongly against slavery, against "ranking the so-called races of man as distinct species", and against ill-treatment of native people.[168][VI]
Darwin was intrigued by his half-cousin Francis Galton's argument, introduced in 1865, that statistical analysis of heredity showed that moral and mental human traits could be inherited, and principles of animal breeding could apply to humans. In The Descent of Man Darwin noted that aiding the weak to survive and have families could lose the benefits of natural selection, but cautioned that withholding such aid would endanger the instinct of sympathy, "the noblest part of our nature", and factors such as education could be more important. When Galton suggested that publishing research could encourage intermarriage within a "caste" of "those who are naturally gifted", Darwin foresaw practical difficulties, and thought it "the sole feasible, yet I fear utopian, plan of procedure in improving the human race", preferring to simply publicise the importance of inheritance and leave decisions to individuals.[169] Francis Galton named this field of study "eugenics" in 1883.[V]
Evolutionary social movements

Full length portrait of a very thin white bearded Darwin, seated but leaning eagerly forward and smiling.

Caricature from 1871 Vanity Fair
Further information: Darwinism, Eugenics, and Social Darwinism
Darwin's fame and popularity led to his name being associated with ideas and movements which at times had only an indirect relation to his writings, and sometimes went directly against his express comments.
Thomas Malthus had argued that population growth beyond resources was ordained by God to get humans to work productively and show restraint in getting families, this was used in the 1830s to justify workhouses and laissez-faire economics.[170] Evolution was by then seen as having social implications, and Herbert Spencer's 1851 book Social Statics based ideas of human freedom and individual liberties on his Lamarckian evolutionary theory.[171]
Soon after the Origin was published in 1859, critics derided his description of a struggle for existence as a Malthusian justification for the English industrial capitalism of the time. The term Darwinism was used for the evolutionary ideas of others, including Spencer's "survival of the fittest" as free-market progress, and Ernst Haeckel's racist ideas of human development. Writers used natural selection to argue for various, often contradictory, ideologies such as laissez-faire dog-eat dog capitalism, racism, warfare, colonialism and imperialism. However, Darwin's holistic view of nature included "dependence of one being on another"; thus pacifists, socialists, liberal social reformers and anarchists such as Peter Kropotkin stressed the value of co-operation over struggle within a species.[172] Darwin himself insisted that social policy should not simply be guided by concepts of struggle and selection in nature.[173]
After the 1880s a eugenics movement developed on ideas of biological inheritance, and for scientific justification of their ideas appealed to some concepts of Darwinism. In Britain, most shared Darwin's cautious views on voluntary improvement and sought to encourage those with good traits in "positive eugenics". During the "Eclipse of Darwinism" a scientific foundation for eugenics was provided by Mendelian genetics. Negative eugenics to remove the "feebleminded" were popular in America, Canada and Australia, and eugenics in the United States introduced compulsory sterilization laws, followed by several other countries. Subsequently, Nazi eugenics brought the field into disrepute.[V]
The term "Social Darwinism" was used infrequently from around the 1890s, but became popular as a derogatory term in the 1940s when used by Richard Hofstadter to attack the laissez-faire conservatism of those like William Graham Sumner who opposed reform and socialism. Since then it has been used as a term of abuse by those opposed to what they think are the moral consequences of evolution.[174][170]
Commemoration

Main article: Commemoration of Charles Darwin
Three-quarter portrait of a senior Darwin dressed in black before a black background. His face and six-inch white beard are dramatically lit from the side. His eyes are shaded by his brows and look directly and thoughtfully at the viewer.

In 1881 Darwin was an eminent figure, still working on his contributions to evolutionary thought that had an enormous effect on many fields of science.
During Darwin's lifetime, many geographical features were given his name. An expanse of water adjoining the Beagle Channel was named Darwin Sound by Robert FitzRoy after Darwin's prompt action, along with two or three of the men, saved them from being marooned on a nearby shore when a collapsing glacier caused a large wave that would have swept away their boats,[175] and the nearby Mount Darwin in the Andes was named in celebration of Darwin's 25th birthday.[176] When the Beagle was surveying Australia in 1839, Darwin's friend John Lort Stokes sighted a natural harbour which the ship's captain Wickham named Port Darwin: a nearby settlement was renamed Darwin in 1911, and it became the capital city of Australia's Northern Territory.[177]
More than 120 species and nine genera have been named after Darwin.[178] In one example, the group of tanagers related to those Darwin found in the Galápagos Islands became popularly known as "Darwin's finches" in 1947, fostering inaccurate legends about their significance to his work.[179]
Darwin's work has continued to be celebrated by numerous publications and events. The Linnean Society of London has commemorated Darwin's achievements by the award of the Darwin–Wallace Medal since 1908. Darwin Day has become an annual celebration, and in 2009 worldwide events were arranged for the bicentenary of Darwin's birth and the 150th anniversary of the publication of On the Origin of Species.[180]
Darwin has been commemorated in the UK, with his portrait printed on the reverse of £10 banknotes printed along with a hummingbird and HMS Beagle, issued by the Bank of England.[181]
A life size seated statue of Darwin can be seen in the main hall of the Natural History Museum in London. .[182] A seated statue of Darwin stands in front of Shrewsbury Library, the building that used to house Shrewsbury School, which Darwin attended as a boy.
Darwin College, a postgraduate college at Cambridge University, is named after the Darwin family.
Works

For more details on this topic, see Charles Darwin bibliography.
Darwin was a prolific writer. Even without publication of his works on evolution, he would have had a considerable reputation as the author of The Voyage of the Beagle, as a geologist who had published extensively on South America and had solved the puzzle of the formation of coral atolls, and as a biologist who had published the definitive work on barnacles. While On the Origin of Species dominates perceptions of his work, The Descent of Man and The Expression of the Emotions in Man and Animals had considerable impact, and his books on plants including The Power of Movement in Plants were innovative studies of great importance, as was his final work on The Formation of Vegetable Mould through the Action of Worms.[183][184] 
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